The Rise of History’s Greatest Emperor: An Untold Story - Alex Petkas
In a Nutshell
Alex Petkas champions studying Roman history through Plutarch-style **monumental history** for emulation and personal inspiration, exemplified by Julius Caesar's tears before Alexander's statue, sparking his ruthless ambition amid factional civil wars, pirate crucifixions, and the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus. Caesar's conquests in Gaul, Rubicon crossing, Pharsalus victory, Cleopatra alliance, and pardons of enemies built unmatched loyalty but provoked an **honor crisis** among Roman elites, who assassinated him on the Ides of March 44 BC to reclaim agency from his monarchical power consolidation. Key takeaways: Emulate greats like Caesar for self-transcendence; true leadership fuses charm, frontline bravery, and gifts to forge fanatical loyalty; unchecked ambition disrupts traditional honor systems, birthing assassins who prioritize meaning over subservience.
These notes were generated by AI and may contain inaccuracies.
Learning about Roman history is useful for the modern world because it provides inspiration and examples of greatness. Nietzsche's early book On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for Life warns that history can drain life, cause questioning of decisions, overload with knowledge, and lead to retreat into the library as an opiate for an unfulfilling life. However, history can quicken and enliven, as Goethe said: > "I hate all knowledge that does not quicken and enliven me like away with it."
Nietzsche frames the most enlivening approach as monumental history, embodied by Plutarch, the great ancient philosopher and entertaining biographer. This approach seeks examples of greatness across subjects like kings, battles, art history, engineering, statuary—not just precise facts, but resonance for achievement and finding one's true self in figures representing the greatest version of one's life. Greats emulate history, e.g., Julius Caesar weeping before Alexander the Great's statue. History is ultimately about emulation and imitation.
Ancient peoples approached history similarly: ancient Egypt had Egyptologists studying 5,000 BC in 2,500 BC; late antiquity (4th century AD) was as far from Homer as we are from Charlemagne; Plutarch (Greek philosopher under Hadrian/Trajan, ~100 AD) wrote biographies of figures 100-700 years earlier, with a deep sense of tradition.
Caesar in his early 30s as quaestor (chief of staff to a governor) in Spain tours a temple to Hercules (like a museum with statues and dedications). He lingers weeping before Alexander the Great's statue. His friends ask why; he replies: > "Do you not think it is a matter for tears that when Alexander was my age, he was the ruler of so many great peoples and yet I have done nothing worthy of great renown?"
This is one of only two known instances of Caesar crying. Romans were restrained about tears (unlike crying Greeks in Homer: Achilles over Patroclus, constant tears in Odyssey). Despite promising career—quaestor, Civic Crown (Roman Medal of Honor for saving a citizen)—Caesar realizes he has been "screwing around" in his 20s and commits to his destiny, painful as that realization is. This moment exemplifies approaching history and greats for personal resonance that "cracks you open."
Caesar grows up in Rome's seedy Subura district (dirty, brothels, dice games outside bars—place aristocrats visit but avoid living). Julian clan claims descent from Aeneas (son of Venus, mythic founder of Rome, ~1,200 years back); mother's Marcii from King Ancus Marcius (6th century BC, 500 years). Blue blood but not power elite (unlike Metelli, Cornelii); recent generations unaccomplished.
Family aligned with Roman populares (left/populist faction: land reform, public lands redistribution, merit, talented outsiders). Aunt married to Gaius Marius (greatest populares figurehead, outsider who won wars, made fortune, married into respectability). Father dies suddenly (heart attack?) tying shoes in Caesar's early teens; father was praetor (second-highest office), died before consulship shot. Marius likely father figure.
At 16, Caesar marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna (Marius's colleague, powerful populares, consul 3 years). Civil war erupts: optimates (aristocratic/oligarchic faction for Senate traditions, family status, status quo, priesthoods) vs. populares. Marius and Cinna die; Sulla (optimates leader) wins bloody war (tens of thousands/100,000+ dead, blood in every Italian valley—worse than Caesar's later civil war). Sulla invades Italy, elected dictator, launches proscriptions (first in Roman history after 400 years civic concord): lists >1,000 populist leaders (rich, influential) posted in Senate—bounty, estate confiscated. Heads thrown at Sulla's feet for rewards; reign of terror while rewriting constitution to suppress populares.
Sulla tests loyalty of young men by demanding divorces: Pompey (older rival/friend) complies, divorces and remarries Sulla's choice. Another refuses Sulla's order to stand down from consulship, murdered in Forum in broad daylight.
Sulla demands 18-year-old Caesar divorce Cornelia (Cinna's daughter, symbol of crushed populares): Caesar refuses, flees into central Italy mountains. Hunted by Sulla's men, catches dysentery, bribes captors to return to family instead. Relatives/ friends plead: young hothead, will behave. Sulla relents but warns: > "Very well, but you are fools if you don't see many Marius in that boy."
Reveals Caesar's showmanship (PR stunt still talked about), commitment to populist connections (Cornelia as last symbol after purge), family loyalty (refuses to be pushed, willing to die), foresight for revolutionary populist career. Loyal to Cornelia until her death (mother of only legit child, daughter Julia); no known affairs during that marriage despite his reputation.
Ambition off the charts from youth: smart, talented, handsome, destined for big things.
Young Caesar (~20-23), on study trip in Asia Minor (pre-Pompey pirate cleanup), captured by pirates demanding 20 million sesterces ransom. Caesar insists: > "What you're asking is insulting... double it."
Pirates trolled him; higher ransom boosts story/honor (time, Greek for honor = quantifiable ransom price comrades pay, as in Homer). While captive, composes speeches, declaims to pirates (makes them laugh/cry), criticizes their taste, threatens: > "Someday I'm going to come back... and execute every single one of you."
Pirates laugh it off. Ransomed, raises own fleet, tracks their cove and
The local governor responsible for that part of the sea raises a fleet with his own funds, finds the pirates' cove, captures them, and brings them to the governor, who dawdles without a plan. Caesar crucifies all of them to make a statement. Because they were kindly hosts, he slits their throats first for a quick death instead of days of agony. This combines his winning charm, political acumen, and coldblooded fulfillment of his promise.
Before becoming a commander, Caesar is stylish, wearing his toga looser than others, drawing attention despite older men calling it effeminate. In his 20s, he prosecutes corrupt governors as publicity stunts, losing most cases but making a statement as an anti-establishment figure. Sulla dies soon after becoming dictator, establishing the Optimate oligarchy of his buddies, who are corrupt, fat, slow, and plundering provincials. Caesar stands for justice throughout his early career.
Thirty years earlier, a riot in the Forum led to populist leaders like Saturninus being murdered: arrested, held in the Senate house, then roof tiles hurled from above killed them. Caesar targets one last surviving vaguely implicated man, an emaciated 80-year-old Rabirius, holding him responsible for Saturninus's death, emphasizing Rome as a place of justice. They convict him in a special court with crucifixion as punishment. Last-minute political shenanigans by Rabirius's friends raise a flag claiming bad omens, calling it off. Caesar expected this; the point was the statement that oligarchs can't get away with murder anymore. This boosted his popularity before leading armies.
Caesar wins soldiers' respect by fighting on front lines, with incredible loyalty. He's a playboy, fun, gives gifts, always in debt but pays creditors. Magnetic personality.
In the Civil War, quaestor Granius Petro, a ship captain, gets captured. Enemy Optimate commander offers to sell sailors as slaves but free Petro if he tells Caesar his war is futile and to surrender. Petro says, "It is the custom of Caesar's soldiers to give mercy but not to receive it," stabs himself. Rather die than be spared by enemies.
In trench siege war with Pompey in Greece: Caesar builds 17-mile wall around Pompey's camp, Pompey counters. Supplies choke; Pompey's animals starve, Caesar cuts water. Caesar's 20,000-30,000 men eat local food, then weeds baked into disgusting cakes. Pompey's men taunt hunger; Caesar's soldiers catapult weed cakes over, showing willingness to starve. Pompey sees one, says, "Good God, we are fighting with beasts." Caesar's men say they'd rather eat tree bark than surrender.
Fights in front lines with centurions, knows all ~375 centurions' names (1 per 80 men in 30,000 army). Eats same food (rancid olive oil, ground sleeping). Gives best bed to weakest. Lavish with gifts; amasses money in Gaul to give to friends, Rome. Sees money/riches/gifts as tools to bind people, where real power lies.
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Pompey and Caesar friendly most of career. Pompey moderate populist, fights for Sulla early but not into politics; wants army commands (excellent administrator/logistics, big guy). Caesar helps him get extraordinary commands despite no offices until 35 (bypasses sequence for consul). Pompey has boyish charm, quiff like Alexander (both model after him), ruthlessness (called "kid butcher"), combining brutality and charm.
Caesar tight with Crassus (richest man, finances Caesar's debts). Pompey returns from glorious eastern campaign: defeats Mithridates, conquers Judea, defiles Jerusalem temple; needs Senate to ratify treaties, settle soldiers. Blocked by Senate/Optimate establishment (led by Cato, Caesar's Stoic nemesis). Crassus wants tax breaks for equestrian tax collectors. Both outsiders. Caesar brokers: supports my consulship, I'll pass your legislation. They agree. Makes peace between rivals blocking each other. Caesar elects consul 59 BC, marries daughter Julia to Pompey (loving marriage despite politics); Caesar becomes younger father-in-law.
After consulship, Caesar gets Pompey/Crassus to send him to Gaul (France) 58-52 BC for conquest (Rome holds coastal strip). Gauls (Celts) warlike tribes, threatened Rome (sacked city centuries earlier; recent invasion stopped by Gaius Marius). While away 7-8 years, Crassus dies on Parthian campaign (Iraq, not Iran). Three-man balance gone; polarity inflames. Establishment (Cato) courts Pompey (always wanted approval), makes him respectable shield vs. Caesar (seen as revolutionary since youth; Sulla warned of "many Mariuses in him"). 51 BC, Caesar has well-trained legions; enemies demand he return only to face prosecution for past acts (including consulship). Play Pompey against him. Julia dies in childbirth 54 BC (boy dies too), final tether gone.
Caesar tries repeatedly to meet and settle peacefully, but Pompey hardens, refuses.
Pompey brilliant: defeats Sertorius, conquers pirates in 3 months, great administrator (some say overrated general, but Caesar better). Outnumbers Caesar greatly; has many legions on paper (fresh recruits when Caesar crosses Rubicon).
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Complicated standoff.
There's a complicated buildup and standoff. Caesar wants to return to Rome without prosecution; the Senate refuses. Concessions are rejected back and forth. Caesar prepares his armies but doesn't want a civil war—he's just returned from an eight-year campaign in Gaul from 58 BC to 45 BC almost constantly at war. He has 10 legions (40,000 men) strung out over Gaul and forts, with only one legion (4,500 men) at Ravenna on the border between Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Italy proper.
Consuls must disband armies before reentering Italy; crossing with an army is an act of war. The border is the Rubicon River, an insignificant stream near Ravenna on the Adriatic coast. Caesar camps at Ravenna, negotiating with Senate envoys.
Negotiations break down; Senate declares Caesar a public enemy and war. The next day, Caesar acts normally: attends gladiatorial shows, inspects troops, dines with friends, but secretly orders muster. He reaches the Rubicon at night, gets lost in the woods. Suetonius describes a great winged figure blowing a trumpet, like the gods calling him to war.
With his officers, Caesar knows crossing declares war on the Senate. He says, > "Let the die be cast."
—a quote from Menander's drama/comedy for entering a highly risky venture with uncertain results (per Plutarch). He crosses quickly, captures a city in Italy proper within a day. Caesar loves being underestimated; Senate has 10 legions in Italy, but he advances with one legion.
Caesar's advantages: loves being underestimated and is extremely fast. He blitzes through Italy. Pompey and Senate flee to Greece to muster ships and troops in the east, planning to reinvade Italy. They know Caesar lacks ships/troop transports, preventing him from crossing to Greece and using his speed advantage. Plan: blockade Italy, starve Rome (grain from Sicily, North Africa; Rome has ~1 million people, can't supply by carts).
Pompey's forces in Spain resist; Caesar controls only Italy and Gaul, so fights war in Spain first, then pursues Pompey in Greece. Enemies turn it into a world war: Spain, Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, North Africa, final embers in Spain. Caesar visits every Roman province, carrying war to almost all.
First civil war campaign: Spain. Second: Greece, defeats Pompey at Battle of Pharsalus (should have been decisive). Pompey flees to Egypt (has friends there). Egyptians lure him from warships to a small boat to avoid reefs, then murder him before his son, wife, friends—never reaches shore. Pompey suspects it, tells boat captain: > "If I were worried about my life, I would not get in this boat."
Egypt in civil war: ruled by Ptolemies (Greco-Macedonian dynasty), capital Alexandria (founded by Alexander the Great). Conflict between teenage siblings: Ptolemy XIII (~15, controlled by general Achillas and eunuch Pothinus) vs. Cleopatra (~20, in wilderness).
Egyptians kill Pompey to curry favor with Caesar (post-Pharsalus winner), present his head and signet ring (lion emblem) to avoid Roman troops ravaging Egypt or Pompey raising army. Caesar wanted Pompey alive—pardoned many enemies (e.g., Domitius, Petreius). Hoped face-to-face meeting (first in 10 years) would end war peacefully; could convince Pompey to stand down troops.
Caesar cries upon seeing Pompey's head (second time, after Curio's); was his friend, father of his late son-in-law (married daughter Julia), took care of her. Not crocodile tears—wanted reconciliation, though Pompey's career over. Caesar kills men who ordered hit (Pothinus, others). Ptolemy XIII represents pro-independence party; popular vs. unpopular Cleopatra (Caesar's type).
Egypt: Roman client kingdom (not province), wants independence. Alexandria: glorious marble city of culture (library, Alexander's tomb) vs. dirty Rome. Caesar stays weeks, sees opportunity in civil war to intervene/extend power. Egypt richest kingdom: fertile Nile (flooding), rich eastern desert mines (exotic marble, porphyry, gems, amethyst, emerald, gold—still mined today). Later Rome's breadbasket.
Cleopatra smuggled into royal palace in rolled-up rug (like mattress, per Plutarch) as "gift" to Caesar. Makes grand entrance, charming, multilingual (Greek native, Egyptian, Latin, Syrian, etc.), clever, beautiful (~8/10), knack for power, plays men's heartstrings—knows Caesar's weakness for smart high-status women (on third wife in Rome).
Caesar mediates reconciliation; Ptolemy's side rejects. Caesar picks Cleopatra; they become lovers, have son Caesarion (Ptolemy XIV officially, "Little Caesar"). Ptolemy XIII drowned in Nile after battle (boating "accident" forced by Achillas/Pothinus coup attempt—Caesar defeats). Cleopatra's sister Arsinoe revolts; Caesar crushes, captures, marches in triumph in Rome.
Cleopatra: living goddess/embodiment of Isis (pharaohs as Osiris/Amun-Ra avatars). Depicted as Greek statue to Greek subjects, Egyptian hieroglyphic style to Egyptians. Reliefs show her with son Caesarion (3000 BC pyramid style). Ptolemaic naming: boys Ptolemy, girls Cleopatra/Arsinoe—to embody same god across generations.
Dalius's parents had a son, Salvador, two years before Dalius was born. That son died. They named the next son Salvador and at age two took him to his dead brother's grave, saying, "This is who you are. This is you. You are the reincarnation of your dead brother."
Caesar accumulated enemies but kept pardoning them.
Caesar knew of assassination plots, including 18 months earlier after returning from the African campaign where he defeated Cato and friends. Cicero mentioned this in a speech before Caesar: Caesar says, "I have lived long enough either for nature or for glory," dismissing the plots. He was 54, born 100 BC, assassinated 44 BC on the Ides of March. That's old for a Roman. Friends begged him to increase security or get a bodyguard, but he refused: tyrants like Pisistratus at Athens seize power by getting bodyguards first, claiming threats. Caesar didn't want to rule a subjugated populace or create a police state; he wanted free Romans who could criticize him, make jokes at his expense. Caesar got tired of reports: "Anybody bringing more talk about an assassination plot faces consequences."
Busy day hearing cases, petitions, passing laws, preparing Parthian expedition to avenge Crassus (killed by Parthians 10 years earlier, who captured Roman eagles). Caesar was better at war than politics, happier there. Drowning in admin like email inbox of ancient Rome. Dinner at Lepidus's house (trusted friend), nine guests reclining on couches around central table. Among them: Decimus Brutus (not Marcus Brutus of Shakespeare; Decimus was closer—lieutenant in Gaul, naval commander against Veneti, crucial at Marseilles, in Caesar's will). Decimus stabbed him next day. Caesar worked during dinner: secretary fed him letters to sign, writing valet (farewell) on each. Conversation theme proposed by Caesar: best kind of death. Discussed Cyrus the Great from Xenophon's Cyropaedia (hated long slow death with burial arrangements). Caesar: best death is sudden, swift, unexpected. Decimus right there. Went home late. Calpurnia had bad dreams (house burning, holding bloody Caesar), omens like wind opening shutters, weird birds.
Roman feasts: nine seats, couches around table, all in same conversation. Bad for digestion. Pythagorean cup (greedy cup): ancient Greek cup with hidden siphon; fills normally below line, drains completely if overfilled to teach moderation and fairness. Legend: Pythagoras used it for workers/students—greed causes loss of everything. In Plato's Symposium, watered wine heavily for sober talk after prior drunkenness. Cato known as tippler, arriving at Senate smelling of wine for long philosophical conversations.
Caesar dismissed omens throughout career (e.g., ignored birds/thunder as consul). Calpurnia urged staying home. Felt out of sorts, stomach issues. Senate business: dispute between Mark Antony and Dolabella. Considered skipping. Visited buddy's house nearby, did sacrifice with bad omens, decided to stay home. Decimus Brutus arrived: "Caesar, listening to ravings of a woman? Never bothered by omens before—think of battles won after bad omens. Senate cleared schedules, busy men. Make them feel Rome is the same." Decimus persuaded him (fellow soldier). Crowds thronged Caesar en route. Young man (son of Asian host, studying philosophy, connected to Marcus Brutus) passed urgent letter warning of plot; Caesar planned to read but didn't. Walked 20 minutes from Forum to Pompey's new Senate complex (built with eastern spoils, in Campus Martius area). Throne under Pompey the Great statue. Bad omens before entering, but proceeded. Caesar consul that year.
Petitioners (assassins: both Brutuses, Cassius) distracted: "Please pardon my exiled brother." Grabbed robe; Caesar realized violence on first stab. 15-20 stabbers (some held doors). To Marcus Brutus (son of lover Servilia, promoted despite fighting for Pompey): Kai su, teknon ("You too, child") or Et tu, Brute. Bled out. Pandemonium; Senate cleared. Body alone on floor—fear of implication prevented approach. Slaves carried on litter (only three men found, needed four); rained, arm hanging out, streets lined, back to Calpurnia.
Caesar identified success/legacy with Rome's flourishing. Enemies saw post-civil war shift: Caesar first man in Rome, ending corruption/oligarchy stranglehold. Huge wealth inequality; system incentivized debt for elections, recouping by robbing provincials (Greeks, Gauls, Spaniards) via bribes. Caesar fought 450-year Republic game since expelling kings (like Americans rejecting George III; Romans expelled Tarquin the Proud). Honor via elections, wars, service to Republic. Caesar transitioning political system into
Caesar is transitioning the political system into something resembling a monarchy. He avoids calling it kingship or himself king, but deliberately consolidates all authority into himself. His legacy depends on retaining power; as a control freak, he fears that releasing it will lead to his legislation being undone and reversion to the old ways.
This places him in an uncomfortable position: traditionally, honors were granted by the Roman people—for example, supreme responsibility as consul, commanding Rome's armies, or winning victories came from election by the people. Now, Caesar hands out offices, picks consuls and praetors, drafts laws, and gets the Senate to rubber-stamp them. All honor flows from one man, which proud Romans see as slavery.
Aristotle emphasizes that the most difficult and important duty of a statesman is to wisely distribute honors. For statesmen like Caesar or Decimus, the prize is honor, not wealth, pleasure, fame, or status. The great statesman desires great things, considers himself worthy, and is correct in that judgment—being worthy of great things.
Philosophers debate the good life and what is worthy of desire. Of external goods, Aristotle says the highest is honor—essentially the ransom price on a note. One can desire internal goods like virtue, inner peace, wholeness, or wisdom, but honor is the highest external prize for an ambitious man. Pursuing it requires virtue to be truly worthy.
Even for a great statesman, honor can be corrupted—corrupt people often receive honors. Caesar, a brilliant statesman, legislator, politician, and people-handler, did not solve this for a whole class of ambitious young men in their late 30s to early 40s, in their prime with much ahead.
These men see the political game as screwed: raised to seek honor from the Roman people, now they must command armies, pass laws, etc., as Caesar's employee—never a boss or patron, always a client. This was intolerable, a meaning crisis.
Killing him made them assassins for the rest of time, but preferable to being a peaceful subordinate. It was better to be mutinous and rebel against a great leader who pushed power too far than part of a structure that raised Rome to a great empire. They saw more meaning, self-determination, and agency in that path.
Dante still puts them in the ninth circle of hell for betraying a friend.
Host gives Alex a coin from Kinser Coins (recommended): Hadrian (Hadrainus Augustus), minted when he was consul (COS on reverse). Features stars and Roma, the divine tutelary goddess of Rome, in a toga. Hadrian, a northern Brit reference (guest has visited Hadrian's Wall), has a beard resembling the guest's. Hadrian is the last emperor Plutarch lived under, special but not fully emulatable—he was a great fan and patron of the Greeks, doing things Greek-style.
Cost of Glory podcast on Spotify, YouTube (making more videos from audio), costofglory.com. Runs retreats in Greece and Rome where men reenact history (demand for LARP battles). Tapping into men thinking about the Roman Empire every 30 minutes—aiming to increase to every 15.
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