The Fundamentals of Training for Muscle, Strength & Longevity
In a Nutshell
Training for longevity requires balanced development of muscle mass, strength, power, mobility, and aerobic capacity rather than chasing single proxy metrics like VO2 max or grip strength. Hypertrophy is driven by mechanical tension through progressive overload with any rep range and equipment, while pure strength emphasizes skill, heavier loads, lower volume, and multi-joint movements using a 3x5 heuristic. Fat loss depends on caloric expenditure and consistency via the 54321 activity rule, with strength training mainly helping maintain results; program design follows frequency, exercise selection, order, intensity, volume, rest, and problem prediction.
These notes were generated by AI and may contain inaccuracies.
This episode marks the first open Q&A session in the history of Perform. Questions were collected from listeners and bucketed into five categories: longevity and health span, basics of exercise for muscle growth/hypertrophy/strength/fat loss, program design, functionality, and artificial intelligence.
When thinking about longevity through exercise, the focus should be on outcomes rather than specific metrics. The goal is to live a long life while being resilient enough to handle new activities without excessive soreness or injury risk. This requires avoiding early death due to physiological limitations while maintaining the ability to perform desired activities within reason.
Tissue tolerance is essential—every part of the body including the Achilles, back, neck, and adductors must handle stressors. Relying on a single exercise mode like cycling only or bench press only creates vulnerability when the body encounters unfamiliar movements, speeds, or loads. A wide variety of movement skills, training styles, ranges of motion, and speeds builds true resilience. Training should be viewed across months and years rather than individual workouts.
To achieve well-rounded capacity, training should address:
- Joint mobility through full range of motion
- Speed and power work when appropriate
- Muscle mass development
- Strength building
- Range of motion
- Balance
- Proprioception
This forms the base of the training pyramid for longevity.
Metrics like VO2 max, grip strength, leg strength, foot speed, power, and balance correlate with lifespan and wellness span. However, these are proxies—they appear frequently in research because they are easy to measure in laboratory settings, not because they are inherently the most important factors. Other attributes like single-leg squat strength likely predict longevity equally well but lack equivalent research exposure.
Grip strength functions simultaneously as a proxy for overall health and general strength, while also being a direct measure. Hands are the primary interface with the world, so losing capacity there changes behavior. If grip strength is low (sub-30th percentile), direct training creates meaningful quality-of-life improvements. Moving from the 80th to 90th percentile solely for longevity offers minimal benefit.
VO2 max is also a proxy for good health. When controlling for metabolic health, body composition, and sleep, its predictive power for longevity decreases. However, the ability to use oxygen, metabolize carbohydrates and fat, and produce functional movement remains valuable in itself.
Training priorities should follow a spectrum: if metrics are low or poor, direct training improves quality and length of life. Moving from good to great or great to elite may not add meaningful longevity benefits. The goal is avoiding narrow focus on single metrics at the expense of broader attributes.
A longevity-focused program should include:
- Balance and mobility
- Speed and power
- Dynamic movement across frontal, sagittal, and transverse planes
- Muscle mass
- Strength
- Muscular endurance
- Aerobic capacity
- Long-duration ability (walking for hours, standing, low-level activity, stair climbing)
Hypertrophy requires mechanical tension primarily driven by volume. The 72-hour rule provides a starting framework: every 72 hours, apply stimulus to the target muscle. This can be achieved through body-part splits or full-body training depending on schedule.
Mechanical tension can be achieved across a wide spectrum. Research shows equivalent muscle growth from 5 repetitions per set (heavy) to 30 repetitions per set (light). The key is achieving mechanical tension rather than hitting a specific repetition count. All equipment types work—barbells, dumbbells, bodyweight, bands, machines, and kettlebells—because they apply tension to tissue.
Rest periods between sets can vary. Shorter rest requires lighter loads; longer rest (2-4 minutes) allows heavier loads and may be superior according to recent research. Both approaches work. The critical requirement is training close to failure—within 1-3 repetitions of failure on the final set provides sufficient stimulus.
Progressive overload is required for continued hypertrophy. Methods include:
- Adding load (weight)
- Adding repetitions per set
- Adding sets
- Combining load and repetition increases
- Increasing range of motion
- Increasing training frequency
Progress does not need to occur every week—every 2-3 weeks remains effective. The single largest reason for plateaus is lack of structured progressive overload. Having any plan outperforms making up workouts spontaneously.
Strength differs from hypertrophy because it is a neurological skill rather than a purely physical attribute. For beginners and intermediate trainees, hypertrophy and strength training overlap significantly—what builds muscle also builds strength. When the goal is pure strength without muscle gain (weight-class athletes, aesthetic preferences), the skill component must be emphasized separately.
Your ability to get stronger is not only determined by your muscle size, just like your ability to hit a golf ball isn't only determined by your muscle size. It's a part of the equation. Typically, people with more muscle are going to be stronger typically, but not exclusively and not always because there's a skill component to it. You can get stronger by just working on skill, just like you can hit a ball farther by just working on skill and not only just adding muscle mass.
If there is a particular exercise you want to get stronger at, then just get really good at your technique. Make sure you're getting advice from somebody or working with a coach who knows how to do a really good technical squat or deadlift or whatever exercise you're most interested in. You can see tremendous progress. In fact, we've seen people literally double or more their strength without really adding much muscle because they just got better at the skill. It's just technique.
You can also simply work on training at a higher load or lifting heavier with less volume. So there is not enough volume repetitions and sets and things like that to drive a ton of muscle growth, but there's enough to drive the skill component of it up because it is more skill-based.
We tend to think about strength training as something you'll do more frequently than muscle growth. The 72-hour rule for hypertrophy is not true for strength. Since you're not putting high loads and high volume on a muscle, it's quite low volume. You can do it pretty frequently. Doesn't mean you're going to go all the way up to your one repetition max every time, but you can train submaximally and just work on technique a lot, even at fairly heavy loads.
One of the rules that we use quite often with strength and this is also true for speed and power is the old adage of what I call 3x5. Three to five is just a rough heuristic that says okay somewhere between three to five days per week. Pick three to five exercises. Do three to five sets of three to five reps per set as heavy as you can or reasonably close and rest three to five minutes between each set.
If you do that, that allows you to do something as small as three days a week. You do three exercises, three sets of three, and you take a five minute break or three minute break. That's a 20-minute workout. If you do those heavy, that can be a very good stimulator of strength. You can get really, really, really strong like that. Or you could go buck wild, the other end of that spectrum, and go five days a week, five exercises, five sets of five, and just bury yourself. That's going to be a really challenging program if you're lifting with any amount of weight. Really, if you're pushing it, that's going to be super hard and probably not advisable. And if it is, not for very long. But most people are going to pick something in the middle. That's why I like the 3 to 5. It gets you roughly close to what you need to do to get faster, more powerful, and stronger.
When thinking about exercise selection for strength, you probably don't select very many single joint exercises for strength. You can, but it's really hard to do like a set of three with a biceps curl. It's just not that common of a thing to do. You're more likely to select multi-joint exercises, bigger exercises. You're probably more likely to select machines, which are totally fine for strength, barbells, dumbbells, kettle bells, and you're probably not as likely to be able to get away with things like body weight. Doesn't mean you can't. Plenty of circumstances you can, but you get the point here. You start to get limited with how much you can load it and the movement patterns.
In contrast to hypertrophy, you can do single joint exercises for hypertrophy all day. You can do muscle isolations. You can do smaller movements and you can use light bands and do different things like that where at some point when we get into strength, we start to lose the realistic ability, not the absolute or literal ability, but the realistic ability to use some of those tools.
Strength probably falls more into that traditional resistance exercise, weightlifting, weight training umbrella where hypertrophy can really be done with just push-ups, sit-ups, and things like that if you wanted to.
The last part here we'll discuss is fat loss. And this is the easiest of all of them because now all we're looking at is effectively caloric expenditure. And so now it's not about specificity. It's not a skill. It's not even requiring one major stimuli like mechanical tension. If you like to use strength training, great. If you hate strength training, fine. If you want to use low duration or long duration, low intensity, you want to do group classes, you want to do it in your home, you want to do it with sports or activity, all of it works. All we really care about here is can you pick something that's going to keep you healthy so you can keep doing it. Consistency and adherence are the number one predictors of exercise success for fat loss.
A meta analysis was just published in the last month showing really clear evidence that strength training specifically doesn't necessarily aid in fat loss, but it is really effective at maintaining fat loss. So, you don't have to have it to lose fat, but it's super helpful in keeping that fat off in the long term.
A quick little tool you can use for fat loss is what I call 54321. And that is five days a week, try to be active. I'd like you to be active six or seven, but give me five. Four days a week, try to actually work out. Now, these are not the same thing. Active can just be standing desk. It can be walking more, escalator versus stairs, things like that. Four days a week is actually working out. I mean, you need to put the gym clothes on. You need to get moving and really do some sort of formal exercise.
Three is heavy sweat. Now, just because you sweat more doesn't mean your workout was any better, more effective, especially if you're trying to train for strength or speed or skill or something else. So, my point here is not to like get you to sweat. That needs to be super clear. But the reason I do like saying, hey, a rule of having three days a week where you have a good sweat is you should be working out hard enough to where you sweat a good amount three times a week. That's the only crude metric we're trying to go after here. This eliminates things like walking and gardening and stuff like that. That's great. We already tackled that and being physically active and moving. Though you need ideally at least three days a week where you're actually truly working out. So, five days a week, be active. Four days a week, have structured exercise. Three days a week, make sure that exercise is hard enough to where you're getting a good sweat in.
Two days a week, I want you working out really hard. Really hard. If this means intervals, if this means maximum heart rate or zone four or five, I don't care. However you're defining hard, if this is with weights or this is any other way, I want you training really hard where you're like, "Oh my gosh, I am pooped at the end of that thing." What this allows you to do is scale these things up if you'd like or scale them down. But I'll reiterate, you can lose tons of weight just walking. But what we want to do is try to get a blended program that's going to be as successful as possible. So I like at least two days a week where you're working pretty hard.
And then finally, one day a week, something where you're doing something long. So, this is going to cover your bases of your lower intensity zone zero, one, two, whatever you need. This could be your output over time, your cardiovascular system, your endurance, and all that. And if you look at successful fat loss programs, they probably fall into the 54321 category at the highest level. And then they could look like a billion different methods within that. But hopefully the 54321 rule helps you a little bit to understand as long as you're that or pretty close, your fat loss programs got a good chance to be successful.
So you have tons and tons of ways you can go about it. Just pick the ones that'll keep you the healthiest, trying the hardest, having the most fun, most consistent, and you can choose anything under your umbrella. As I mentioned, group activity classes, bands, barbells, spin class, high intensity, low intensity, walking, hiking, rowing. I mean, all of it is great. I would probably, if possible, recommend a balance. I would do some low intensity, longer duration stuff. Hike, row, sports, surf, skateboard, whatever. I would pick something that's a higher intensity. Your group activity class, your sprints, pushing a sled, jiu-jitsu class, cardio, kickboxing, whatever. I'd pick something that's along the strength training realm. Even if that's a Pilates class or something that involves some sort of overload. And if you got something from all three of those buckets, at least once a week, then I'd fill in whatever other time you got with your personal preference. But that puts most people in a really good spot.
Our third question for the day is what we call program design. And I've already touched on a lot of these terms so far in our first two answers, but maybe we'll call them out directly. Now, program design is the way that we intentionally manipulate what are called the modifiable variables to get an outcome. That's science talk for, well, what kind of lifting do I do if I want to gain muscle, but I don't care about strength? Or how what type of exercise or how heavy should I lift or how often should I rest if I want this outcome and this outcome but not that outcome. I got a lot of questions about things like hybrid training. I want a little bit of strength and a little bit of hypertrophy. All these are program design questions. Methods are many concepts are few so here are the variables you should be thinking about and if you're selecting these things even close to appropriate your program will work.
If you're training hard or even kind of hard and consistently, but you're not getting the outcome you want or you're getting outcomes you don't want, it's because you made a mistake with these modifiable variables. Almost guaranteed.
The very first one, and when I design programs, by the way, this is exactly the order I do them in. My first step is identifying frequency. This is how many days per week do I have to work out. I don't start selecting exercises. I don't pick my zones or my heart rates or any of that stuff before I identified what is realistic with this person based on their lifestyle goals, backgrounds, and so forth. I can't do anything with my program design selection if I don't know if you can train five days a week, two days a week, one day a week, or somehow you got the ability to train 20 days in a week. I'm half joking there, but in reality, many of our athletes will train multiple times a day. So, we actually do get to play on the 15 to 20 training sessions per week.
Quick rule of thumb here, just having coached hundreds of people, whatever your answer is, cut one day off that and go with that number. So, if you tell me five, then program it for four. And great, if you got the fifth day, bonus, you can go do a whole day of bicep curls or calf raises or whatever you want to do there because you don't want the inverse. You do not want I'm like half joking, but I'm also not joking at all. It's worse for you to have a program based on say four days a week and you're consistently missing one of those days. Whether that day is the same day you're always missing, Mondays, you know, like are always a problem or if it's like always leg day or always interval day. You don't want that consistent problem. I'd rather go the inverse. So, take whatever day you feel like is realistic, cut it by one, and then build your program based on that.
Once I know how many days a week you can train, then I'm going to start selecting the exercises. This is called exercise choice. And this is when we get into some of the variables we've discussed. Are we using machines or body weight or bands or a bike? Are we doing indoor, outdoors? Are we playing sports? Are we doing only structured exercise? Are we blending in physical activity? Like what are we doing here?
And when you select that, I'm thinking about number one, what's the goal? Exercises themselves do not determine the adaptation. So, a box jump doesn't make you more powerful. A back squat doesn't make you grow muscle. Running doesn't improve your endurance. Exercises do not determine adaptations. How you execute that exercise determines the adaptation. I can't tell you how many times people have done back squats or deadlifts or hip thrusts and then gone, ah, I was trying to grow my glutes and it didn't work. Or I'm trying to get bigger shoulders and this bench pressing isn't working or this overhead presses aren't working or fill in the blanks. Because the exercises don't determine the adaptation. Your technique, your range of motion, how many reps you're doing, all the other modifiable variables are what determine whether or not you got big or fast or better range of motion or more flexibility or whatever the case is.
What you do choose exercises based on are things like what is your joint health? What do you have access to? What's realistic for you? What do you personally not like? What hurts your wrist? What makes your knee angry? What muscles are we trying to target? What range of motion do we want to be in? Those are the types of things we should consider when we're choosing our exercises, not the outcome, per se.
I will undercut myself here by saying there are some exercises that are generally not good for some adaptations and are generally much better for others. Some easy examples. Deadlifts are probably not very good for speed. You can technically do them, but you're more likely to bang your shin or hit your knee than you are to get fast with them. So, it's just not a great exercise selection for speed, but it might be fine for hypertrophy, low back health, and a million other things. We could play the inverse game. Getting on a rower or a ski erg are probably awesome for many things, but maybe not the best thing ever for hypertrophy. So, you can have a little bit more nuance with this, but what I want to express right now is this top overall point. I don't want you going to the gym and saying, "Oh, I'm trying to grow X muscle, therefore I have to use this exercise." Because it's just fundamentally not true.
When you do select exercises, you do want to pay close attention to what we'll call balance. In a previous episode of perform, which we'll link to in the show notes, we talked at length about asymmetries and imbalances. And so you can see all the details there. But just for now, just make sure your exercise selection isn't putting you in a bad spot. So this could look something like only choosing exercises that are upper body pressing movements like a bench press and no pulling movements like a row. So that itself can be a mistake that can happen with just selecting your exercises.
After that is called exercise order, which is as simple as it sounds. Which one do you do first, second, third, fourth, and fifth? Probably the most common question we got related to exercise order is if I'm doing cardio and weights in the same day, which do I do first? The answer is you can do either one. Do what is most important to you first. If you're primarily there because you want to make sure you get your cardio in, do it first. And then you try to get a lift in afterwards, great. If you're there to try to get strong and you're doing your cardio first and then your legs are tired and you're trying to get strong in your legs, well then you've undercut your own goals and since we discussed earlier what it takes to get stronger is skill. Hard to develop skill when you're tired. You want to pay attention to things like that. What is my primary goal? What am I most concerned with? General rule of thumb is do that first. But you want to do your big muscles first. Cool. Smaller muscles later.
You like to use what some people call pre-fatigue or pre-exhaustion, which is maybe you'll do a bunch of biceps work before you do your pulling exercises to fatigue your biceps so you can really train your upper back when you're doing a pulling movement. Okay, that works. You can do a bunch of leg extensions prior to squatting if you're trying to pre-fatigue your quads. Plenty of research on that. Plenty of people have been doing it in the field for decades. So, we have practical evidence that it works. You have coaching evidence that works. You have scientific evidence that works. Or you could say the opposite. I'm not trying to isolate my quads. I'm trying to just get stronger or I'm trying to get some other outcome. And therefore, you would focus on the big movement first and do the isolation work at the end. All of these are possible. So hopefully what you're seeing here is these are not so much as hard and fast rules as they are options that depend on your context, nuance, and goals.
So, how many days a week are we working? What exercises are we picking? What order are we doing them in? And then we pick what's called the intensity. In the gym, this is typically defined as, you know, what percentage of your one repetition max or what percentage of your maximum effort. If you're on the track, this might be represented as your percentage of your max speed. Could be percentage of your heart rate reserve or your VO2 max. Like it's just some way of trying to determine load or intensity. Like how hard are you working in that context. So I'll reiterate depending on what you're looking at this could look a little bit different but I'll pick it at this stage because now just think about this practically. I know how many days a week I'm doing my work. I know what exercises I'm doing. I know what order I'm going to do them in. Now I can start to go, okay, this one's going to be really hard and then I'm going to go a little bit lighter on this one. This one will be a little bit easier and so forth.
After that, then you can pick what's called your volume because your intensity will determine your volume. Anyways, if you want Wednesdays to be a max out day and you're on the track running as hard as you can, well, you probably can't do your highest volume that day either because you're going to be tired. So that's what when I say that the intensity or the load will determine the volume. That's why if you want to be lifting at 90 plus% of your max, you're not going to be doing 12 repetitions per set. So volume is in large part determined by load anyways, which makes these numbers easy to fill in.
You've got that down, then you're going to select what's called your rest intervals. So this is the time you're taking in between. Are you doing a one to one track workout where you're going to run 800 meters? Take that time. Say it takes you three minutes to do that 800 meters and then you're going to rest for three minutes and then you're going to do four or five of those. Be a tough workout. But a great one if you're looking for a workout to do. By the way, just ask any runner, cyclist or swimmer, you know, one mile repeats or, you know, whatever the distance is in their sport. It's a brutal thing to do, but it's super effective. Great. That's awesome. If you want to do something different, you go shorter rest intervals or longer rest intervals. What you're trading off is volume for intensity. That's the game you're playing. The shorter your rest always, the more fatigue accumulation, the less work you can do or the harder you can do it in. One of the two. The longer you rest, the opposite occurs. Doesn't always mean it's better.
Easy examples here would be if you're in a sport like wrestling and you know the work to rest ratio in your sport is oftentimes one to one or shorter then you might want to practice 30 seconds of hard work with 15 or 20 seconds of recovery because you're never going to get a minute or two or three during your individual round or individual periods on the match in the match rather you get the point. So, some sports and specific goals will determine the work to rest ratio. If you're thinking about this just from the context of like fat loss, hey, do whatever one you want. Strength, longevity, do whatever one you want. I would probably just do a combination of all them. There are different attributes, but they tend to be very specific past this kind of high level. The rest intervals though tend to take care of themselves.
The last thing you want to do in my particular opinion here is then try to predict problems. So once you've got this entire program down, then look at it and go, "All right, where are we going to run into issues? Maybe I'm being just unrealistic about my volume. Maybe I've got too many hard workouts. Boy, I might hold on for three or four weeks, but if my motivation wanes, this might be harder than I think. Maybe I've got too many exercises in a day. I've got too many lower body days. I've got whatever the issue is. Just think through the realistic scenario of your client or yourself and go. You're going to run into problems. What's the most likely place? And then fix it right now before you get three or four weeks in. Right? So maybe you're like, "God, I just I really hate these pelvic floor corrective exercises." But you know you do them because every time you don't, you hurt your groin or your back. All right, go fix the problem. Now. How do you engineer into the program so it's more realistic for you so you just don't get three or four weeks in and realize you quit and then five weeks after that you get hurt? So, that's how I build programs. Hopefully, that helps you whether you're putting these together for yourself or you just kind of like the stuff."
At this stage, the discussion turns to functional training. Common questions include how to build functional strength without focusing on the weight room, how to develop functional mobility, and how to improve movement skill. The goal is to build functional muscle, functional strength, and functional performance.
The term "function" is often misunderstood. Every exercise has some function, so the real question is whether an exercise serves the specific purpose at hand. For a major league baseball pitcher, a small forearm rotational exercise or even a biceps curl can be highly functional for elbow integrity. For someone simply trying to lose weight or stay healthy, the same exercise may not be the most important choice. The guiding rubric is whether the exercise serves the intended outcome. This connects directly to exercise selection: determine the desired result and choose the exercise that best achieves it.
Movement quality is evaluated through four combined criteria. The first is range of motion. Most joints should be trained through their appropriate range. Different joints have different degrees of freedom. The shoulder can invert, evert, internally and externally rotate, flex, and extend. The knee primarily flexes and extends with limited internal and external rotation and does not tolerate varus or valgus stress well. The cervical spine is designed for high mobility, allowing turning, tilting, and varied angles. The thoracic spine permits rotation with moderate flexion and extension. The lumbar spine has the least range of motion on purpose because it is meant to be stable. When control or capacity is lost in any area, problems and injuries arise. An exercise is functional when the joint moves through the range it is supposed to move through.
The second criterion is stability: joints should move when they are supposed to move and remain stable when they are not. The third is symmetry within realistic benchmarks rather than perfect left-right or up-down equivalence. The fourth is awareness, meaning the person recognizes whether their body is positioned and moving as intended. When range of motion, stability, symmetry, and awareness are all present, the movement is high quality and therefore functional.
Making an exercise more functional does not require adding more body parts, making it look like a sport, or replicating a primary activity. A trap bar deadlift can be functional for a swimmer if the goal is a stronger back, better force production into the ground, or improved shoulder stability. The exercise itself is not inherently functional or non-functional; the outcome being trained determines its value.
Heavy strength training performed through full range of motion is highly effective for improving range of motion. Static stretching can also be used. Recent research highlights lengthened partials as a useful tactic. Lengthened partials emphasize the stretched position of the movement. Research shows this approach is at least as effective, and potentially superior, for muscle growth while also supporting flexibility and connective tissue health. The recommendation is to train joints over a large range of motion by default because the same practice delivers muscle growth, strength, connective tissue health, and range of motion.
An example of a lengthened partial is an overhead press in which the dumbbell is lowered fully to the bottom position to place the shoulder and triceps under maximal stretch, then lifted. The emphasis is on the lengthened portion rather than necessarily locking out at the top. Partial range can be used in the shortened end of the movement while still prioritizing the lengthened segment.
Two recent papers examined the psychological benefits of static stretching, including improvements in heart rate variability, mood, and anxiety. Static stretching is relaxing and can improve mood. Examples include holding a hamstring stretch for 30 seconds to two minutes or performing a couch stretch. Static stretching immediately before exercise can decrease performance when performance is the priority. However, if an individual lacks range of motion and uses stretching to achieve better positions before lifting, the net effect can be positive. Context and nuance determine the best approach.
AI is a powerful tool for organizing information, identifying themes, and processing large personal data sets. It excels at tasks such as summarizing training volume over the past month, rewriting a program by swapping every shoulder press for a machine alternative, or replacing every trap bar deadlift with a dumbbell Romanian deadlift across multiple programs. These uses save substantial time.
AI currently struggles with evaluation and judgment. It tends to surface the loudest voices rather than the most expert or honest ones. It also relies on synthetic data and general population norms rather than data from high-performing individuals. When asked for optimal ranges rather than average ranges, current systems typically only adjust the numerical bounds without providing meaningfully different insight. Context-dependent solutions are another weakness. AI can generate basic exercise or nutrition programs for the average person, but it lacks the expertise to integrate multiple constraints or individual variables effectively.
Demand for human expertise in health and human performance has increased after a period of decline during COVID. People are seeking coaches who have practical experience and provide personal interaction. The practical guidance is to use AI for organization and administrative tasks while exercising caution when it is asked to evaluate data or generate individualized solutions.
The discussion addressed training for longevity and health, distinguishing approaches for fat loss, strength, and muscle growth. It covered program construction using modifiable variables including exercise selection, frequency, intensity, volume, and rest intervals. It also examined functional strength, functional muscle, and movement quality, emphasizing the desire to move better and be more athletic rather than optimizing solely for scores or appearance. The final topic was the current strengths and limitations of AI in health and performance contexts.
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